Examine The Public Service Ad.how Does This Image Appeal To Logic?

Introduction

Every bit a reader and a listener, it is central that you be able to recognize how writers and speakers depend uponethos,logos, anddesolation in their efforts to communicate. As a communicator yourself, you lot will do good from being able to see how others rely upon ethos, logos, and pathos and so that you lot tin apply what you larn from your observations to your own speaking and writing.

Evaluate an Appeal to Ethos

When yous evaluate an appeal toethos, you examine how successfully a speaker or writer establishes authority or credibility with her intended audience. You are request yourself what elements of the essay or speech would cause an audition to feel that the author is (or is not) trustworthy and credible.

A good speaker or author leads the audition to feel comfy with her knowledge of a topic. The audience sees her as someone worth listening to—a clear or insightful thinker, or at least someone who is well-informed and genuinely interested in the topic.

Some of the questions you can enquire yourself as you evaluate an author'south ethos may include the following:

Has the writer or speaker cited her sources or in some way fabricated it possible for the audience to access further information on the issue?
Does she demonstrate familiarity with different opinions and perspectives?
Does she provide consummate and accurate information near the effect?
Does she use the evidence fairly? Does she avert selective use of testify or other types of manipulation of information?
Does she speak respectfully almost people who may have opinions and perspectives different from her own?
Does she use unbiased language?
Does she avert excessive reliance on emotional appeals?
Does she accurately convey the positions of people with whom she disagrees?
Does she acknowledge that an issue may be complex or multifaceted?
Does her education or experience requite her credibility equally someone who should exist listened to on this issue?

Some of the higher up questions may strike you as relevant to an evaluation of logos besides equally ethos—questions about the completeness and accuracy of information and whether it is used fairly. In fact, illogical thinking and the misuse of evidence may lead an audience to draw conclusions not only about the person making the argument but also near the logic of an argument.

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Ethos

In a perfect world, everyone would tell the truth and we could depend upon the credibility of speakers and authors. Unfortunately, that is not ever the example. You would look that news reporters would be objective and tell new stories based upon the facts. Janet Cooke, Stephen Glass, Jayson Blair, and Brian Williams all lost their jobs for plagiarizing or fabricated office of their news stories. Janet Cooke's Pulitzer Prize was revoked after information technology was discovered that she made up "Jimmy," an eight-twelvemonth erstwhile heroin addict (Prince, 2010). Brian Williams was fired equally anchor of the NBC Nightly News for exaggerating his role in the Iraq War.

Others accept get infamous for claiming bookish degrees that they didn't earn equally in the case of Marilee Jones. At the time of discovery, she was Dean of Admissions at Massachusetts Constitute of Technology (MIT). Afterwards 28 years of employment, it was determined that she never graduated from college (Lewin, 2007). Nonetheless, on her website (http://www.marileejones.com) she is however promoting herself every bit "a sought after speaker, consultant and author" (para. 1) and "one of the nation's well-nigh experienced College Admissions Deans" (para. 2).

Beyond lying nearly their own credentials, authors may utilise a number of tricks or fallacies to lure you to their indicate of view. Some of the more than mutual techniques are described below. Others may be found in the appendix. When you recognize these fallacies existence committed you should question the credibility of the speaker and the legitimacy of the statement. If y'all apply these when making your own arguments, be aware that they may undermine or destroy your credibility.

Fallacies That Misuse Appeals to Ethos

Advertisement hominem: attacking the person making an statement rather than the statement itself.

Example: "Of form that medico advocates vaccination—he probably owns stock in a pharmaceutical visitor."

False authority: relying on claims of expertise when the claimed adept (a) lacks adequate groundwork/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, eastward.yard., has a financial stake in the outcome.

Example: "Dr. X is an engineer, and he doesn't believe in global warming."

Guilt by association: linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or grouping.

Case: "My opponent is a carte du jour-conveying member of the ACLU."

Poisoning the well: undermining an opponent'southward credibility before he or she gets a take a chance to speak.

Case: "The prosecution is going to bring up a series or and so-chosen experts who are getting a lot of coin to testify here today."

Transfer fallacy: associating the argument with someone or something popular or respected; hoping that the positive associations will "rub off" onto the statement.

Examples: In politics, decorating a stage with carmine, white, and blue flags and bunting; in advertising, using pleasant or wholesome settings equally the properties for print or video ads.

Proper name-calling: labeling an opponent with words that have negative connotations in an attempt to undermine the opponent's credibility.

Instance: "These rabble-rousers are zip just feminazis."

Obviously folk: presenting yourself every bit (or associating your position with) ordinary people with whom you hope your audience volition identify; arguers imply that they or their supporters are trustworthy because they are 'common people' rather than members of the elite.

Instance: "Who would you vote for—someone raised in a working-grade neighborhood who has the support of Joe the Plumber or some elitist whose daddy sent him to a fancy school?"

Testimonial fallacy: inserting an endorsement of the statement by someone who is popular or respected just who lacks expertise or authority in the area under discussion.

Example: "I'm non a doctor, but I play 1 on Idiot box"—a famous example of a celebrity endorsement for a cough syrup (Deis, 2011, n.p.).

Image titled Logical Fallacies: Argument from Authority. Two men in business suits stand outside; the one on the left holds a briefcase and a chihuahua. Dialogue bubbles: Holding this Chihuahua will prevent me from getting the flu. / That seems unlikely. Why would you believe that? / It's true! My neighbour told me. His uncle is a homeopathic doctor with four university degrees!

The almost full general structure of this statement runs something like the following: Person A claims that Person A is a respected scientist or other potency; therefore, the claim they make is true.

Evaluate an Appeal to Logos

When yous evaluate an entreatment tologos, you consider how logical the argument is and how well-supported it is in terms of evidence. Y'all are request yourself what elements of the essay or speech would cause an audience to believe that the statement is (or is not) logical and supported past advisable bear witness.

To evaluate whether the testify is appropriate, apply theSTAR criteria: howDue southufficient,Typical,Accurate, andRelevant is the evidence?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Logos

Diagramming the statement tin help you determine if an appeal to logos is manipulative. Are the premises true? Does the decision follow logically from the premises? Is there sufficient, typical, accurate, and relevant evidence to support inductive reasoning? Is the speaker or author attempting to divert your attending from the real bug? These are some of the elements yous might consider while evaluating an argument for the utilize of logos.

Pay particular attention to numbers, statistics, findings, and quotes used to support an argument. Exist disquisitional of the source and exercise your own investigation of the "facts." Maybe you've heard or read that half of all marriages in America will terminate in divorce. Information technology is so often discussed that we assume information technology must be true. Conscientious research will show that the original marriage study was flawed, and divorce rates in America have steadily declined since 1985 (Peck, 1993). If there is no scientific evidence, why practice nosotros continue to believe information technology? Part of the reason might be that information technology supports our idea of the dissolution of the American family.

Fallacies that misuse appeals to logos or attempt to manipulate the logic of an argument are discussed below. Other fallacies of logos may exist found in the appendix.

Fallacies That Misuse Appeals to Logos

Hasty generalization: jumping to conclusions based upon an unrepresentative sample or insufficient prove.

Case: "x of the terminal xiv National Spelling Bee Champions have been Indian American. Indian Americans must all be neat spellers!"

Appeal to ignorance—truthful believer'due south grade: arguing forth the lines that if an opponent tin can't prove something isn't the case, then information technology is reasonable to believe that it is the case; transfers the burden of proof abroad from the person making the claim (the proponent).

Example: "You tin can't bear witness that extraterrestrials haven't visited earth, so it is reasonable to believe that they have visited earth."

Appeal to ignorance—skeptic'south course: disruptive absenteeism of evidence with evidence of absence; assumes that if y'all cannot now prove something exists, then it is shown that it doesn't exist.

Example: "There's no proof that starting classes later in the solar day will improve the performance of our high school students; therefore, this change in schedule will non piece of work."

Begging the question: round argument because the premise is the aforementioned as the claim that yous are trying to prove.

Example: "This legislation is sinful considering it is the wrong thing to do."

False dilemma: misuse of the either/or argument; presenting but two options when other choices exist

Case: "Either we laissez passer this ordinance or at that place will be rioting in the streets."

Post hoc ergo propter hoc: Latin phrase meaning "after this, therefore considering of this"; confuses correlation with causation by terminal that an event preceding a second upshot must exist the cause of that second consequence.

Example: "My child was diagnosed with autism subsequently receiving vaccinations. That is proof that vaccines are to blame."

Non-sequitur: Latin for "does not follow"; the conclusion cannot exist inferred from the bounds because there is a pause in the logical connection between a claim and the premises that are meant to support it, either because a premise is untrue (or missing) or because the human relationship betwixt bounds does not support the deduction stated in the merits.

Example (untrue premise): "If she is a Radford student, she is a member of a sorority. She is a Radford student. Therefore she is a member of a sorority."

Smoke screen: avoiding the existent upshot or a tough question by introducing an unrelated topic every bit a distraction; sometimes called a crimson herring.

Example: "My opponent says I am weak on crime, but I take been one of the most reliable participants in city council meetings."

Harbinger man: pretending to criticize an opponent'south position but actually misrepresenting his or her view equally simpler and/or more than farthermost than it is and therefore easier to refute than the original or actual position; unfairly undermines credibility of claim if non source of merits.

Example: "Senator Smith says we should cut back the Defence budget. His position is that nosotros should let down our defenses and just trust our enemies not to assault usa!"

Picture of two ducklings, labeled Red Herring. In dialogue bubbles: It is my contention that The Flying Spaghetti Monster does exist! / What evidence do you have to support such an assertion? / Oh there is plenty of evidence; it is all around us! Besides, look at how I am standing on one leg!

The red herring is as much a fence tactic as it is a logical fallacy. It is a fallacy of distraction, and is committed when a listener attempts to divert an arguer from his argument by introducing some other topic. This can be i of the most frustrating, and effective, fallacies to detect.The fallacy gets its name from play a joke on hunting, specifically from the practice of using smoked herrings, which are blood-red, to distract hounds from the aroma of their quarry. Simply as a hound may be prevented from catching a play a trick on by distracting it with a carmine herring, so an arguer may be prevented from proving his point past distracting him with a tangential issue.

Evaluate an Appeal to Pathos

People may be uninterested in an issue unless they can discover a personal connectedness to information technology, so a communicator may try to connect to her audition by evoking emotions or by suggesting that author and audience share attitudes, behavior, and values—in other words, by making an appeal to pathos. Fifty-fifty in formal writing, such as academic books or journals, an author ofttimes volition endeavour to nowadays an issue in such a way as to connect to the feelings or attitudes of his audition.

When you evaluate pathos, you lot are asking whether a speech communication or essay arouses the audience's involvement and sympathy. You are looking for the elements of the essay or speech communication that might cause the audition to feel (or non feel) an emotional connectedness to the content.

An author may use an audition'south attitudes, beliefs, or values as a kind of foundation for his argument—a layer that the writer knows is already in identify at the showtime of the argument. So i of the questions y'all tin inquire yourself every bit you evaluate an author'south use of pathos is whether at that place are points at which the author or speaker makes statements assuming that the audience shares his feelings or attitudes. For instance, in an argument about the First Amendment, does the writer write as if he takes information technology for granted that his audience is religious?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Desolation

Up to a certain point, an appeal to pathos can exist a legitimate part of an argument. For case, a writer or speaker may begin with an anecdote showing the effect of a law on an individual. This anecdote will be a means of gaining an audition'south attention for an argument in which she uses evidence and reason to present her full example as to why the law should/should not be repealed or amended. In such a context, engaging the emotions, values, or beliefs of the audience is a legitimate tool whose effective apply should lead you lot to requite the author high marks.

An appropriate appeal todesolation is unlike than trying to unfairly play upon the audition's feelings and emotions through fallacious, misleading, or excessively emotional appeals. Such amanipulative use of desolation may alienate the audience or cause them to "tune out". An example would be the American Gild for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) commercials featuring the vocal "In the Arms on an Angel" and footage of driveling animals. Fifty-fifty Sarah McLachlan, the vocalist and spokesperson featured in the commercials admits that she changes the channel because they are likewise depressing (Brekke, 2014).

Even if an appeal to pathos is non manipulative, such an appeal should complement rather than replace reason and evidence-based argument. In improver to making employ of pathos, the author must found her credibility (ethos) and must supply reasons and evidence (logos) in back up of her position. An author who essentially replaces logos and ethos with pathos alone should be given low marks.

See beneath for the most common fallacies that misuse appeals to pathos.

Fallacies That Misuse Appeals to Pathos

Appeal to fright: using scare tactics; emphasizing threats or exaggerating possible dangers.

Example: "Without this additional insurance, you lot could find yourself broke and homeless."

Appeal to guilt and appeal to pity: trying to evoke an emotional reaction that will cause the audience to carry sympathetically even if it means disregarding the issue at hand.

Instance: "I know I missed assignments, only if you neglect me, I will lose my financial aid and have to drop out."

Appeal to popularity (bandwagon): urging audience to follow a course of activity because "everyone does it."

Example: "Nine out of ten shoppers have switched to Blindingly-Bright-Smile Toothpaste."

Slippery Gradient: making an unsupported or inadequately supported merits that "One thing inevitably leads to another." This may be considered a fallacy of logos likewise as pathos only is placed in this section because it often is used to evoke the emotion of fear.

Example: "Nosotros can't legalize marijuana; if we exercise, then the next thing y'all know people volition be strung out on heroin."

Appeal to the people:likewise calledstirring symbolsfallacy; the communicator distracts the readers or listeners with symbols that are very meaningful to them, with potent associations or connotations.

Example: This fallacy is referred to in the judgement "That pol ever wraps himself in the flag."

Appeal to tradition:people take been done it a certain way for a long time; assumes that what has been customary in past is correct and proper.

Example: "A boy always serves equally student-body president; a girl ever serves as secretary."

Loaded-Linguistic communication and other emotionally charged uses of language: using slanted or biased language, including God terms, devil terms, euphemisms, and dysphemisms.

Example: In the sentence "Cutting access to food stamps would encourage personal responsibility," the god term is "personal responsibility." It might seem as if it would be hard to argue against "personal responsibility" or related god terms such as "independence" and "self-reliance." Notwithstanding, it would require a definition of "personal responsibility," combined with show from studies of people's behavior in the face of food postage or other benefit reductions, to argue that cutting access to food stamps would pb to the intended results.

Titled Logical Fallacies: The Ad Hominem. Two Canada geese stand in water. One, facing the camera, has a dialogue bubble: We share many genetic characteristics with ducks because we have evolved from a common ancestor. The other, facing the first goose, squawks at it with mouth open, tongue extended. It's dialogue bubble: You're close-minded and stupid and you eat corn! You don't know anything!

Hither is an case of a common logical fallacy known as the ad hominem argument, which is Latin for "argument against the person" or "argument toward the person." Basically, an ad hominem argument goes like this: Person one makes claim 10. At that place is something objectionable most Person 1. Therefore claim X is false.

Decision

Fallacies can ingather upward whenever definitions, inferences, and facts are at issue. Once we become familiar with fallacies we may start to see them everywhere. That can be adept and bad. Since persuasion is ever-present, information technology is good to be on guard against various hidden persuaders. Merely whether a persuasive strategy is considered beguiling may be dependent on context. Editorials and advertisements—both political and commercial—frequently use such strategies as transfer and appeals to popularity. We need to exist critically enlightened of the techniques of persuasion existence used on united states, simply since weawaitadvertisements, political speeches, and editorials on public policy or ethical problems to endeavour to sway us emotionally, perhaps just extreme examples deserve to exist judged harshly for beingness fallacious.

In addition, something that looks every bit if it is a fallacy may plow out non to exist on closer examination. For example, not everything that smacks of slippery slope is fallacious. There are indeed somegenuineslippery slopes, where an initial decision or activity may take both great and inevitable repercussions. So whether that fallacy has been committed depends upon what the author has done (or failed to practice) to back up his claim. Similarly, while personal attacks (advertizement hominem) in most cases are unfair and considered fallacious, in that location are special situations in which a person's character may be directly relevant to his or her qualifications. For example, when somebody is running for political office or for a judgeship, casting doubt on his or her character may be advisable—if one has facts to dorsum information technology up—since information technology relates to job expectations. But wholesale character assassination remains a rhetorical ploy of the propagandist or demagogue.